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Abnormalities in the mitochondrial electron transport chain (ETC), combined with impaired antioxidant defenses, lead to excessive accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which damage lipids, proteins, and mitochondrial DNA, ultimately promoting tubular apoptosis, interstitial fibrosis, and glomerulosclerosis ( Vitamin D mitigates oxidative stress and mitochondrial damage through multiple mechanisms

This study revealed that oral IAP and IAP enhancer could interfere with IR by controlling intestinal inflammation

In PD, there is evidence of dysregulated JAK2/STAT3 signaling

15 Major ROS and RNS include superoxide anion, hydrogen peroxide, and hydroxyl radical (ROS) and nitric oxide, peroxynitrite (RNS), and hypohalous acid

Ilboudo, Y