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Although clinical translation remains in its early stages, the gut-brain axis represents a promising, non-invasive, and systems-level target for neuroprotection

In this sense, some studies suggest that the cytokine storm that is present, especially in more severe COVID-19 patients, may activate the indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase 1 (IDO-1) enzyme and, consequently, culminate in a drastic reduction of tryptophan, increases in toxic metabolites of the kynurenine pathway, and depression (Bouas et al

USA, 2007 , 104 , 2265-2270

Environmental exposures (cigarette/e-cigarette smoke, air pollutants) disrupt pulmonary immune homeostasis, exacerbating disease severity through amplified inflammatory responses (55)

Moreover, curcumin is testified to induce mitophagy by its mitochondria-targeting peculiarity, which triggers the overactivity of SDH and superabundant ROS generation [298]