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Furthermore, when glutamine is used as the substrate, the enzyme hydrolyzes the side chain amide group, yielding glutamic acid and ammonia

J Neurosci Res 75:536543 Sagara J, Makino N, Bannai S (1996) Glutathione efflux from cultured astrocytes

Takiyama N, Matsumoto K

and alkaloids like berberine predominantly target AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK)-dependent metabolic reprogramming, indirectly suppressing mTOR-driven growth (Hashim et al., 2024

Available treatments such as levodopa, dopamine agonists and monoamine oxidase B inhibitors offer only symptomatic relief however, they do not treat the underlying neurodegeneration, emphasising the need for neuroprotective management