In non-invasive breast cancer, malignant cells remain confined to the ducts or lobules and do not invade the surrounding fatty or connective tissues, whereas invasive breast cancer is characterised by cancer cells breaching the ductal or lobular walls and infiltrating adjacent tissues (130) Molecular profiling has further divided breast cancer into four major subtypes: Luminal A, Luminal B, basal-like/triple negative, and HER2-enriched (131, 132) Luminal A tumours exhibit high expression of ER and PR, but low HER2 expression (133135) Luminal B tumours show lower ER and PR levels, variable HER2 expression, and elevated expression of proliferation-associated genes (135, 136)
The investigation of oxidative cell death holds promise for the development of pharmacological agents that are used to prevent tumorigenesis or treat established cancer
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Hypertension 45(3):368373
Free radicals are generated through several different pathways, e.g., during mitochondrial aerobic respiration, approximately 12% of electrons may escape the electron transport chain, and an estimated 2% of the oxygen consumed by mitochondria contributes to ROS formation, primarily the superoxide radical [25]