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27 These modalities influence ion channel activity, increasing intracellular calcium levels, which are crucial for activating downstream signaling pathways such as calcineurin/NFAT, leading to increased protein synthesis, growth factor production, and accelerated tissue repair

Moreover, although certain peptides exhibit cell-penetrating properties, their translocation efficiency remains generally low, particularly across stringent biological barriers such as the BBB, restricting their therapeutic applicability in hard-to-treat diseases (Table 2)

The contribution of gut bacterial metabolites in the human immune signaling pathway of noncommunicable diseases

This mechanism results in a chronic upregulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines (i.e., TNF- and IL-6), which are known to exert deleterious effects on the insulin signaling pathway in adipocytes, hepatocytes, and myocytes (80)

This is where the clean-sport risk becomes even clearer